Marketing as a Business Orientation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Marketing as a Business Orientation - Assignment Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that the marketing concept says that a company must deliver and promote its product in the market before the competitor does. There is the force on the promotion of the product, which means that the customer should know each and everything about the product. The value creation of the product in the minds of the customers is very important. In order to make a good perception in the minds of the customers, the marketing managers should study the market well. They can promote their product well if the market and the customers are relevant. In this way, the resources of the company will not be wasted. The marketing managers should focus on the customer’s requirements, needs, and demands. In this way, it will be easy for the company to manufacture those products, which meet the demands of the target market. When the company fulfills the demands of the customers then they will be more satisfying form the company [products and thus they will be loyal to the company. Another one is the production concept in the list of marketing management orientations. It is the oldest concept of massive production without caring for the demands and requirements of the market. The main thinking beyond the production concept was that the consumers always prefer a low price and an easily accessible availability of the product. For this reason, the companies always focus on the massive and bulk production in order to save their productions costs. When they save their productions costs, then it means that they can sell their product at a cheaper rate as compared to the other competitor in the market. In order to implement this production concept, there is s high requirement of the production facility and its maximum efficiency. This type of production concept is usually used in the countries where the consumers are not concerned about the choices and preferences rather they just need a simple product, which can meet the basic needs. These k inds of customers are usually focusing on the availability of the product rather than the features of the product.

What is an Outcome Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

What is an Outcome - Assignment Example What is theoretical probability? It is the probability that assumes that all outcomes in a sample space are equally likely to occur What is relative frequency method or empirical probability? Empirical probability relies on actual experience to determine the outcome of outcomes What is subjective probability? Subjective probability uses probability value based on an educated guess employing opinions and inexact information. What is a probability distribution? It consists of the values a random variable can assume and the corresponding probabilities of the values which are determined through experiment or through observation. What are the odds of an event? Odds of an event are applied in gambling games to make them fair. What is the multiplication principal for finding number of outcomes? P(A ∠©B)=P(B\A)Ãâ€"P(A) Chapter 7 section B What are independent events? Events can be independent if occurence of one of the events does not affect the probability of another occurring. How do we find the probability of two or more independent events happening at same time? Multiplication of the individual probabilities for each of the events What is the probability of rolling a single die three times and getting a six on all three rolls?

Extraction of Amylase Enzyme From Yam | Experiment

Extraction of Amylase Enzyme From Yam | Experiment Amylolytic enzymes are widely distributed in plant tissues, e.g. in storage tissues such as seeds and tubers and in vegetative organs such as leaves. There exist two types of amylases in some species of plants, (E.C.3.2.1.1; 1-4-ÃŽÂ ±-D-glucan glucohydrolase) and (E.C.3.2.1.2; 1-4-ÃŽÂ ²-D-glucan maltohydrolase) amylases [Thoma, J.A., J.E. Sprandlin and S. Dygert, 1971]. Beta-amylase (-1, 4-glucan maltohyrolase, E.C.3,2,1,2) is an exoamylase that attacks the non reducing ends of starches molecules, producing a-maltose and a limit dextrin as products [Thoma, J.A., J.E. Sprandlin and S. Dygert, 1971]. In starch-enriched tissues, ÃŽÂ ²-amylase may play a role in the mobilization of starch during germination or sprouting tubers [Greenwood, C.T. and E.A. Milne, 1968]. Many reports have been demonstrated that ÃŽÂ ²-amylase has a great commercial value in food and beverage industries. The enzyme is useful in structural studies of starch and glycogen. Marshal and Whelan [Marshall, J. et al 1973] report on the removal of any contaminating ÃŽÂ ²-glucosidase. The practical interest of ÃŽÂ ²-amylase was concentrated on its capacity to produce maltose syrups from starch [Biovin, P., 1997.]. ÃŽÂ ²-amylase has previously been purified and characterized from different types of plant sources and a few of microbial origin. In higher plants, the molecular characterization of ÃŽÂ ²-amylase has been carried out on enzyme purified from the organs enriched in starch such as sweet potato tubers [Balls, A.K.,1948, et al], leaves [Vikso-Nelson, A., et al 1997], bulbs [Dicko, M.H., et al, 2000], seeds of various cereal species such as barley [Shinke, R. et al 1971], wheat [Trachuk, R. et al 1966], rice [Okamato, K. and T. Akazawa, 1978] and other higher plants such as soybean [Gertler, A. and Y. Birk, 1965]. On the other hand, much less information is available on the purification and characterization of ÃŽÂ ²-amylase from root. The present study reports the pur ification of ÃŽÂ ²-amylase from Yam (Dioscorea esculenta) root to a pure state along with its characterization. Amylase is an enzyme that breaks starch down into sugar. Amylase is present in human saliva, where it begins the chemical process of digestion. Foods that contain much starch but little sugar, such as rice and potato, taste slightly sweet as they are chewed because amylase turns some of their starch into sugar in the mouth. The pancreas also makes amylase (alpha amylase) to hydrolyse dietary starch into disaccharides and trisaccharides which are converted by other enzymes to glucose to supply the body with energy. Plants and some bacteria also produce amylase. As diastase, amylase was the first enzyme to be discovered and isolated (by Anselme Payen in 1833). Specific amylase proteins are designated by different Greek letters. All amylases are glycoside drolases and act on ÃŽÂ ±-1,4-glycosidic bonds. It will start to denature at around 60C. Amylase digests not only carbohydrates but also dead white blood cells. For example, when you are low in amylase you are a candidate for abscesses (inflamed areas with pus but not bacteria). If you have a toothache and are being treated with antibiotics, but it doesnt go away, chances are you have an abscess. Amylase is involved in anti-inflammatory reactions such as those caused by the release of histamine and similar substances. The inflammatory response usually occurs in organs which are in contact with the outside world, i.e., the lungs and skin. These include skin problems such as psoriasis, eczema, hives and all types of herpes. Some lung problem including asthma and emphysema may require amylase plus other enzyme formulas depending on the particular ailment. There are many types of amylases, but of importance are: ÃŽÂ ±-amylase, ÃŽÂ ²-amylase and glucoamylase. A diagram of an amylase molecule from human saliva. 1.1 ÃŽÂ ²Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ­ Amylase (EC 3.2.1.2) (alternate names: 1,4-ÃŽÂ ±-D-glucan maltohydrolase; glycogenase; saccharogen amylase) Another form of amylase, ÃŽÂ ²-amylase is also synthesized by bacteria, fungi, and plants. Working from the non-reducing end, ÃŽÂ ²-amylase catalyzes the hydrolysis of the second ÃŽÂ ±-1,4 glycosidic bond, cleaving off two glucose units (maltose) at a time. During the ripening of fruit, ÃŽÂ ²-amylase breaks starch into maltose, resulting in the sweet flavor of ripe fruit. Both ÃŽÂ ±-amylase and ÃŽÂ ²-amylase are present in seeds; ÃŽÂ ²-amylase is present prior to germination, whereas ÃŽÂ ±-amylase and proteases appear once germination has begun. Cereal grain amylase is key to the production of malt. Many microbes also produce amylase to degrade extracellular starches. Animal tissues do not contain ÃŽÂ ²-amylase, although it may be present in microrganisms contained within the digestive tract. 1.1.2 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM Digestion of carbohydrate begins in the mouth by the action of salivary ÃŽÂ ±-amylase.Only limited digestion of carbohydrate occurs, however, because salivary ÃŽÂ ±-amylase is denatured in the stomach due to the low pH. Digestion begins again in the small intestine when pancreatic ÃŽÂ ±-amylase is secreted. Starch is broken down into maltose, isomaltose, and maltotriose by ÃŽÂ ±-amylase through the hydrolysis of ÃŽÂ ±-1-4 glycosidic bonds. These products as well as any other disaccharides that were ingested must be further digested to their respective monosaccharide units by brush border enzymes (maltase, isomaltase, lactase, and sucrase) before absorption. Maltose is hydrolyzed to two glucose molecules by maltase. Isomaltose is hydrolyzed to two glucose molecules by isomaltase. Lactose is hydrolyzed to one molecule of glucose and one molecule of galactose by lactase. Sucrose is hydrolyzed to one molecule of fructose and one molecule of glucose by sucrase. After absorp tion, glucose, galactose, and fructose are transported to the liver via the portal blood. The liver can transform galactose and fructose into glucose (Gropper et al 2005). 1.1.3 REACTIONS OF BETA AMYLASE Starch + H2O in vitro breakdown of semicrystalline starch particles by beta-amylases increases significantly if they act together with glucan, water dikinase starch substrate of different sources, e.g. wheat, wheat bran, rice bran beta-amylase hydrolyzes alpha-1,4-linkage, raw starch granules from potato, wheat, rice and corn, with the granules from rice being the best substrate, beta-amylase attacks very slowly on the starch granules, hydrolyzes corn granules efficiently at 45 °C . Beta-amylase is an exo-enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the alpha-1,4-glucosidic linkage of the substrate liberating beta-maltose from the non-reducing end, Glu-172 and Glu-367 are catalytic residues, substrate recognition mechanism, enzyme structure beta-amylase is an inverting enzyme that hydrolyzes the alpha-1,4-glucosidic linkage of the substrate liberating beta-maltose from the non-reducing end, catalytic mechanism, Glu-172 acts as general acid, Glu-367 acts as general base catalyzes the hydrolysis of alpha-1,4-glucosidic linkages of soluble starch, and liberates beta-anomeric maltose from the nonreducing ends, exo-acting enzyme, composed of two functional domains, a catalytic domain: domains A and B, and starch-binding domain: domain C, beta-amylase has three carbohydrate-binding sites aside from the active site: two in domain B named Site2 and Site3, one in domain C named Site1, roles of these sites in the catalytic reaction and raw starch-binding, beta-amylase hardly h ydrolyzes raw starch from wheat, corn, potato or sweet potato, but binds to it strongly hydrolyzes the alpha-1,4-glucosidic linkage liberating beta-maltose from the non-reducing end of substrate, enzyme/domain structure, starch binding site in domain C, catalytic mechanism starch substrate of different sources, e.g. wheat, wheat bran, rice bran starch substrate of different sources. Beta-amylase hydrolyzes alpha-1,4-linkage, raw starch granules from potato, wheat, rice and corn, with the granules from rice being the best substrate, no efficient hydrolysis of raw starch granules, very slow enzymic attack catalyzes the release of maltose from soluble starch. Malbranchea sulfureastarch substrate of different sources, e.g. wheat, wheat bran, rice bran 106.9% of the activity with amylose, soluble starch, amylose and amylopectin are the most suitable substrates, some activity against native starch, exo-hydrolase that releases beta-maltose from the non-reducing end of alpha-1,4-linked poly- and oligoglucans until the first alpha-1,6-branching point along the substrate molecule is encountered, beta-amylase should be a key enzyme in starch degradation during the germination of millet seeds, enzyme activity increases during days 1-4 of germination starch substrate of different sources, e.g. wheat, wheat bran, rice bran best substrate, pure and low quality starches, maize starch, tapioca starch maltose is the major end product, traces of maltooligosaccharides, no glucose as product. Beta-amylase is involved in starch degradation during mango ripening, which is clearly triggered by detachment from the mother-plant starch enzyme induction upon a cold shock at 4 °C leads to starch-dependent maltose accumulation, which might be required for protection of the photosynthetic electron transport chain, maltose influences the carbohydrate metabolism. Of the components of starch, amylopectin presents the great challenge to hydrolytic enzyme systems. This is due to residues involved in 1,6-glycosidic branch points which constitute about 4-6% of the glucose present. Most hydrolytic enzyme are specific for 1,4-glycosidic links yet the 1,6-glycosidic links must also cleaved for complete hydrolysis of amylopectin to glucose. Some of the most impressive recent exercises in the development of new enzymes have concerned debranching enzymes. It is necessary to hydrolyse starch in a wide variety of processes which may be condensed into two basic classes; Processes in which the starch hydrolysate is to be used by microbes or man and processes in which it is necessary to eliminate starch. In the former processes, such as glucose syrup production, starch is usually the major component of reaction mixtures, whereas in the latter processes, such as the processing of sugar cane juice, small amounts of starch which contaminate non-starchy materials are removed. Enzymes of various types are used in these processes. Although starches from diverse plants may be utilized, corn is the worlds most abundant source and provides most of the substrate used in the preparation of starch hydrolysates. There are three stages in the conversion of starch Gelatinisation, involving the dissolution of the nanogram-sized starch granules to form a viscous suspension; Liquefaction, involving the partial hydrolysis of the starch, with concomitant loss in viscosity; and Saccharification, involving the production of glucose and maltose by further hydrolysis. Galatinisation is achieved by heating starch with water, and occurs necessarily and naturally when starchy foods are cooked. Gelatinized starch is readily liquefied by partial hydrolysis with enzymes or acids are saccharified by further acidic or enzymic hydrolysis (Chaplin,2004). USES OF AMYLASE Amylase enzyme finds use in bread making and to break down complex sugars such as starch (found in flour) into simple sugars. Yeast then feeds on these simple sugars and converts it into the waste products of alcohol and CO2. This imparts flavour and causes the bread to rise. While Amylase enzymes are found naturally in yeast cells, it takes time for the yeast to produce enough of these enzymes to break down significant quantities of starch in the bread. This is the reason for long fermented doughs such as sour dough. Modern bread making techniques have included amylase enzymes (often in the form of malted barley) into bread improver thereby making the bread making process faster and more practical for commercial use. When used as a food additive, and may be derived from swine pancreas or mould mushroom. Bacilliary amylase is also used in clothing and dishwasher detergents to dissolve starches from fabrics and dishes. Workers in factories that work with amylase for any of the above uses are at increased risk of occupational asthma. 5-9% of bakers have a positive skin test, and a fourth to a third of bakers with breathing problems are hypersensitive to amylase. An inhibitor of alpha-amylase called phaseolamin has been tested as a potential diet aid. Blood serum amylase may be measured for purposes of medical diagnosis. A normal concentration is in the range 21-101 Mol/L. A higher than normal concentration may reflect one of several medical conditions, including acute inflammation of the pancreas, macroamylasemia, perforated peptic ulcer, and mumps. Amylase may be measured in other body fluids, including urine and peritoneal fluid. Two amylases are common to the baking industry, alpha-amylase and beta-amylase also known as alpha-1,4-glucan glucanohydrolase and alpha-1,4-glucan maltohydrolase. Amylases convert starch into sugar : the ÃŽÂ ±-amylase will cleave the starch randomly (the so called 1-4 bonds in the starch) while the ÃŽÂ ²-amylase can only chop off two sugar units at the time at the end of the starch chain. Normally there is enough ÃŽÂ ²-amylase present in the flour but sometimes addition of ÃŽÂ ±-amylase is needed. The ÃŽÂ ±-amylase will cut the starch into smaller units called dextrins and the more ÃŽÂ ±-amylase activity there is, the better for the ÃŽÂ ²-amylase because there are more extremities available. So the substrate for the ÃŽÂ ²-amylase is either starch or dextrins and the product is maltose. Alpha-amylase is an endoenzyme that attacks linkages within the molecular structure. It randomly cleaves starch chains at interior a-1,4-glycosidic linkages producing short chains of glucose molecules or dextrins. Beta-amylase is an exoenzyme and cleaves maltose units from the non-reducing end of the starch molecule. In order for these enzymes to function, the starch granule must be ruptured so that the individual starch molecules are available for enzymatic action. Depending upon their origin, alpha- and beta-amylases show differences in pH and temperature optima, thermostability, and other chemical stability. They do not require co-enzymes for activity, although alpha-amylase activity is enhanced by the presence of calcium. The pH optimum for alpha-amylase is 4.5 and it is inactivated at a pH of 3.3 to 4.0. This pH dependence decreases the efficacy of this enzyme in sour doughs. Beta-amylase is active across a much broader pH range, 4.5-9.2, with a pH optimum of 5.3. Alpha-amylase is relatively thermostable up to 70 °C, whereas beta-amylase loses about half of its activity at this temperature. Fungal amylase is the least temperature stable, followed by cereal amylase, while bacterial amylase is stable at higher temperatures. New intermediate stability enzymes have been developed that are active above the gelatinization temperature of starch (60 °C), but are totally inactivated at the later stages of baking (80-90 °C). The objective is to maximize the anti-staling effect without creating a gummy, sticky product. INHIBITORS OF AMYLASE ACTIVITY Amylase inhibitors are naturally present in many plants and protect the plant from pests by not allowing the insect to break down starch and gain energy from it. Plants may contain separate protease inhibitors as well or amylase inhibitors may play a dual role and also inhibit proteases. Protein amylase inhibitors as well as non-protein amylase inhibitors exist. Amylase inhibitors may be active against a wide variety of amylases or may be specific to certain insect amylases or mammalian amylases (Franco, et al 2002). Structure of Proteinaceous Amylase Inhibitors The determination of the structure of a complex between porcine pancreatic amylase  and a protein amylase inhibitor isolated from bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) showed interaction between the pancreatic amylase active site and the inhibitor. Conformational changes were observed in the pancreatic amylase upon the binding of the inhibitor. The inhibitor was found to be a dimer with a disaccharide attached to one of the amino acid residues.  (Bompard G., et al, 1996). Amylase Inhibitors in yam tuber (Shivaraj, et al,. 1979) reported that sweet potatoes do not contain amylase  inhibitors while (Rekha, et al,1999) reported the presence of amylase inhibitors in 79 of  the 100 varieties tested. Cultivar differences as well as isolation procedure could account for  these differing results. Before performing amylase inhibitor assays, Shivaraj and others  homogenized sweet potato with water, allowed the samples to sit for 1 hour, centrifuged the  samples, collected the supernatant, and then subjected the supernatant to heat treatment  (80 °C for 10 minutes) to destroy native amylases. Rekha and others homogenized yam tuber in a sodium phosphate buffer containing polyvinyl pyrrolidone and sodium chloride,  stored the samples in the refrigerator, centrifuged the samples, and then performed  trichloroacetic acid precipitation to remove native amylases. Rekha and others chose to use  TCA precipitation rather than the heat treatment Shivaraj found heat treatment to be in effective at destroying all native amylase activity. YAM Yam is the common name for some species in the genus Dioscorea (family Dioscoreaceae). These are perennial herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania. There are many cultivars of yam. Yam (Dioscorea spp., Dioscoreaceae) is classified as monocotyledonous but is considered to be closely related to dicotyledonous plants as a second cotyledon remains undeveloped in the embryo (Lawton and Lawton, 1967). The storage organ is probably a swollen hypocotyl (Lawton and Lawton, 1969), but is often described as a swollen root. A number of species are grown widely in the humid tropics with D. rotundata and D. cayenensis being of most importance, followed by D. alata and D. esculenta (Akoroda, 1993). These are all of African or East Asian origin, with only the minor species D. trifida being of American origin (Brà ¼cher, 1989). The tubers contain about 1-3  % protein on a dry weight basis (Coursey, 1995). Yam is source of carbohydrate; carbohydrates are one of the three major food groups needed for proper nutrition. Amylase is the digestive enzyme needed to digest carbohydrates. Carbohydrates in food are an important and immediate source of energy for the body. Starch refers to carbohydrates found in plants (grains). Vegetables and fruits are a source of sugar and are broken down to sugar or glucose. Carbohydrates are present in at least small quantities in most food, but the chief sources are the sugars are the sugars and the sugars and the starches (Wright, 1993) Uses of yam Food Yams of African species must be cooked to be safely eaten, because various natural substances in raw yams can cause illness if consumed. (Excessive skin contact with uncooked yam fluids can cause the skin to itch. If this occurs, a quick cold bath will stop the itching.) Yam is consumed in various ways, but is usually boiled and eaten. This involves cutting yam into pieces, then peeling the skin, and boiling the starchy meat. This is usually consumed with palm oil (traditional way), or with other sauces. The boiled yam can also be pounded with a traditional mortar and pestle to create a thick starchy paste known as Pounded Yam. This is also eaten with traditional stews and sauces. Another method of consumption is to sun dry the raw yam pieces. When dry, the pieces turn a dark brown color. This is then milled to create a powder known as elubo in Nigeria. The brown powder can be prepared with boiling water to create a thick brown starchy paste known as amala. This is also consumed with the local stews and sauces. The most common cooking method in Western and Central Africa is cooked boiled yam. (Wikipedia 2003). In India this vegetable is also called Garadu. In central part of India people cut small slices of the vegetable, deep fry them, sprinkle lots of spices on it and eat as snacks. In southern part of India, it is eaten with fish curry and is a local favorite.(Wikipedia 2003) 1.2 TYPES OF YAM Dioscorea rotundata and D. cayenensis Dioscorea rotunda, the white yam, and Dioscorea cayenensis, the yellow yam, are native to Africa. They are the most important cultivated yams. In the past they were considered two separate species but most taxonomists now regard them as the same species. There are over 200 cultivated varieties between them. The Kokoro variety is important in making dried yam chips. They are large plants; the vines can be as long as 10 to 12 meters (35 to 40 feet). The tubers most often weigh about 2.5 to 5  kg (6 to 12 lbs) each but can weigh as much as 25  kg (60 lbs). After 7 to 12 months growth the tubers are harvested. In Africa most are pounded into a paste to make the traditional dish of pounded yam (Kay 1987). Dioscorea alata A piece of cake made with Ube (water yam).Dioscorea alata, called water yam, winged yam and purple yam, was first cultivated in Southeast Asia. Although not grown in the same quantities as the African yams, it has the largest distribution world-wide of any cultivated yam, being grown in Asia, the Pacific islands, Africa, and the West Indies (Mignouna 2003). In the United States it has become an invasive species in some Southern states. In the Philippines it is known as ube (or ubi) and is used as an ingredient in many sweet desserts. In Vietnam, it is called khoai mà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¡ and is used mainly as an ingredient for soup. In India, it is known as ratalu or violet yam. In Hawaii it is known as uhi. Uhi was brought to Hawaii by the early Polynesian settlers and became a major crop in the 1800s when the tubers were sold to visiting ships as an easily stored food supply for their voyages (White 2003). Dioscorea opposita Dioscorea opposita, Chinese yam, is native to China. The Chinese yam plant is somewhat smaller than the African, with the vines about 3 meters (10 feet) long. It is tolerant to frost and can be grown in much cooler conditions than other yams. It is now grown in China, Korea, and Japan. It was introduced to Europe in the 1800s when the potato crop there was falling victim to disease, and is still grown in France for the Asian food market. The tubers are harvested after about 6 months of growth. Some are eaten right after harvesting and some are used as ingredients for other dishes, including noodles, and for traditional medicines (Kay 1987).Air potato Dioscorea bulbifera Dioscorea bulbifera, the air potato, is found in both Africa and Asia, with slight differences between those found in each place. It is a large vine, 6 meters (20 ft) or more in length. It produces tubers; however the bulbils which grow at the base of its leaves are the more important food product. They are about the size of potatoes (hence the name air potato), weighing from 0.5 to 2  kg (1 to 5 lbs). Some varieties can be eaten raw while some require soaking or boiling for detoxification before eating. It is not grown much commercially since the flavor of other yams is preferred by most people. However it is popular in home vegetable gardens because it produces a crop after only four months of growth and continues producing for the life of the vine, as long as two years. Also the bulbils are easy to harvest and cook (Kay 1987). In 1905 the air potato was introduced to Florida and has since become an invasive species in much of the state. Its rapid growth crowds out native vegetation and is very difficult to remove since it can grow back from the tubers, and new vines can grow from the bulbils even after being cut down or burned (Schultz 1993). Dioscorea esculenta Dioscorea esculenta, the lesser yam, was one of the first yam species cultivated. It is native to Southeast Asia and is the third most commonly cultivated species there, although it is cultivated very little in other parts of the world. Its vines seldom reach more than 3 meters (10 feet) in length and the tubers are fairly small in most varieties. The tubers are eaten baked, boiled, or fried much like potatoes. Because of the small size of the tubers, mechanical cultivation is possible; which, along with its easy preparation and good flavor, could help the lesser yam to become more popular in the future (Kay 1987). Dioscorea trifida Dioscorea trifida, the cush-cush yam, is native to the Guyana region of South America and is the most important cultivated New World yam. Since they originated in tropical rain forest conditions their growth cycle is less related to seasonal changes than other yams. Because of their relative ease of cultivation and their good flavor they are considered to have a great potential for increased production (Kay 1987). Dioscorea dumetorum Dioscorea dumetorum, the bitter yam, is popular as a vegetable in parts of West Africa; one reason being that their cultivation requires less labor than other yams. The wild forms are very toxic and are sometimes used to poison animals when mixed with bait. It is said that they have also been used for criminal purposes (Kay 1987). 1.3 Nutritional value Yams are high in vitamin C, dietary fiber, vitamin B6, potassium, and manganese; while being low in saturated fat and sodium. Vitamin C, dietary fiber and vitamin B6 may all promote good health. Furthermore, a product that is high in potassium and low in sodium is likely to produce a good potassium-sodium balance in the human body, and so protect against osteoporosis and heart disease. Yam products generally have a lower glycemic index than potato products, which means that they will provide a more sustained form of energy, and give better protection against obesity and diabetes. Aim and objective The objective of this experiment is to extract the amylases mainly ÃŽÂ ²-amylase from yam tuber and determine the enzymatic activities of the enzymes. At the end of the experiment, the amylase extracted from yam tuber can be made use of in the industries like; the pharmaceutical, plastic and textile industries among others in place of barley commonly made used of. This is even favorable considering the land mass covered by yam and also large usefulness of the yam. CHAPTER TWO 2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 MATERIALS Yam (Dioscoreaceae esculenta),used was from Oja Oba Market in Iwo Osun State, Ethanol, Soluble starch, 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid, sodium hydroxide, sodium potassium tertarate, Sephadex G200 was obtained from Pharmacia fine chemicals, Uppsala, Sweden, disodium hydrogen phosphate were products of British Drug House(BDH), poole England. The distilled water was obtained from the Department of Biochemistry, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife. 2.2 EQUIPMENTS Water incubator manufactured by Grant Instruments(Cambridge) Ltd, Weighing balance made in Switzerland, Centrifuge manufactured by microfield instruments England. Spectrophotometer. 2.2 Preparation of buffer and Reagents 2.2.1 preparation of 0.016 M sodium acetate buffer, pH 4.8 To prepare acetate buffer for, 73.10 g of sodium acetate was dissolved in 900 ml of distilled water, 4.2 ml of acetic acid was added and then made up to 1 Litre in volumetric flask. 2.2.2 Preparation of 2 N sodium hydroxide To 8 g of sodium hydroxide pellets was dissolved in 100ml of distilled water. 2.2.3 Preparation of colour reagent Dinitrosalicyclic acid colour reagent, was prepared by dissolving 1.0 g of 3,5-dinitrosalicyclic acid in 50 ml of distilled water. 30.0 g sodium potassium tartrate tetrahydrate was added slowly with 20 ml of 2N sodium hydroxide. It was diluted to 100 ml with distilled water. 2.2.4 Preparation of 1% starch Prepared by dissolving 1.0 g of soluble starch in 100 ml of 0.016 M sodium acetate buffer pH 4.8. It was boiled to dissolve and cooled, diluted to 100ml with distilled water. 2.3 Method The rate at which maltose is released from starch is measured by its ability to reduce 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid according to Bernfold(1955) . One unit releases one micromole of ÃŽÂ ²-maltose per minutes at 25ËÅ ¡C and pH 4.8 under the specified conditions. 2.3.1 Mashing and Extraction of Enzymes With the use of mortar and pestle, 434.52 g of yam were ground and 400ml of homogenization buffer (i.e 0.016 M sodium acetate pH) was added and stirred, it was kept in a refrigerator for 1 hour with intermittent stirring at 10 minutes interval. It was then centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 10 minutes into components. Assay for protein and enzyme activity was then carried out after it has being stored in 70% of ammonium sulphate(212.4 g/L). 2.3.2 Purification Purification of ÃŽÂ ²-amylase: All enzymes purification steps were carried out at room temperature. Enzyme Precipitation: The crude extract was initially fractioned by 70% (v/v) ammonium sulphate. After centrifugation at 4000 rpm for 10 minutes, the precipitated pellets were collected and re-suspended in of cold buffer. The solution was dissolved in 0.016 M sodium acetate buffer of pH 4.8 and layered on a Sephadex G-200 Colum (1 x 40 cm). Fractions of 5 ml were collected. The fraction was monitored for protein at 280 nM. Elution was in 0.016 M sodium acetate buffer, pH4.8.

Critical Review of the Andromeda Strain Essay -- Novels War Violence E

Critical Review of the Andromeda Strain Imagine walking into a town that normally populates 48 vivacious residents, and discovering 46 non-moving non-living bodies. There are no guns, no bombs, and no visible pre-manufactured weapons of any sort. A few minutes later death strikes, observations can no longer be made, and a black curtain falls. This is what happened to two Army recovery personnel in the town of Piedmont, Arizona (population 48). They set off to retrieve SCOOP VII, a military satellite sent to bring back alien microorganisms. The satellite did its’ job, it brought back a microorganism; something its six predecessors were not able to do. The microorganism SCOOP VII brought back was lethal, killing almost everybody in its’ path, except an old anemic man and a crying infant. Four specialized scientists: Jeremy Stone, Charles Burton, Mark Hall, and Peter Leavitt; are plucked from their everyday lives and placed in the secret building of Project Wildfire, located in Nevada. The five-floored facility was built entirely underground, with each floor more sterile than the one above. Here the four scientists work with the microorganism, now code named â€Å"Andromeda strain.† They try to discover how the agent kills, what it is composed of, where it came from, and why those two civilians survived. The scientists conclude their work on the fifth floor, when disaster strikes. A seal is broken which sets off an automatic nuclear explosio...

The Hunters: Moonsong Chapter Twenty-Eight

â€Å"Of course Bonnie's upset,† Alaric said. â€Å"This is her first real boyfriend. But the three of you have been through a lot together. She'l come back to you, and she'l listen to you, once she gets a chance to cool down.† His voice was deep and loving, and Meredith squeezed her eyes shut and held the phone more tightly to her ear, picturing his grad-student apartment with the cozy brown couch and the milk-crate bookshelves. She had never wished so hard that she was there. â€Å"What if something happens to her, though?† Meredith said. â€Å"I can't wait around for Bonnie to get over being mad at me if she's in danger.† Alaric made a thinking noise into the phone, and Meredith could picture his forehead scrunching in that cute way it did when he was analyzing a problem from different angles. â€Å"Well,† he said at last, â€Å"Bonnie's been spending a lot of time with Zander, right? A lot of time alone? And she's been fine thus far. I think we can conclude that, even if Zander is the one behind the attacks on campus, he's not planning to hurt Bonnie.† â€Å"I think your reasoning is sort of specious there,† Meredith said, feeling oddly comforted by his words nevertheless. Alaric gave a smal huff of surprised laughter. â€Å"Don't cal my bluff,† he said. â€Å"I have a reputation for being logical.† Meredith heard the creak of Alaric's desk chair on the other end of the line and imagined him leaning back, phone tucked into his shoulder, hands behind his head. â€Å"I'm so sorry about Samantha,† he said, voice sobering. Meredith nestled farther into her bed, pressing her face against the pil ow. â€Å"I can't talk about it yet,† she said, closing her eyes. â€Å"I just have to figure out who kil ed her.† â€Å"I don't know if this is going to be useful,† Alaric said, â€Å"but I've been doing some research on the history of Dalcrest.† â€Å"Like the ghosts and weird mysteries around campus Elena's professor was talking about in class?† â€Å"Well, there's even more to the history of the col ege than he told them about,† Alaric said. Meredith could hear him shuffling papers, probably flicking through the pages of one of his research notebooks. â€Å"Dalcrest appears to be something of a paranormal hotspot. There have been incidents that sound like vampire and werewolf attacks throughout its history, and this isn't the first time there's been a string of mysterious disappearances on campus.† â€Å"Real y?† Meredith sat up. â€Å"How can the col ege stay open if people disappear al the time?† â€Å"It's not al the time,† Alaric replied. â€Å"The last major wave of disappearances was during the Second World War. There was a lot of population mobility at the time, and, although the missing students left worried friends and family behind, the police assumed that the young men who disappeared had run off to enlist and the young women to marry soldiers or to work in munitions factories. The fact that the students never turned up again seems to have been disregarded, and the cases weren't viewed as related.† â€Å"Super work on the police department's part,† Meredith said acidly. â€Å"There's a lot of weird behavior on campus, too,† Alaric said. â€Å"Sororities in the seventies practicing black magic, that kind of thing.† â€Å"Any of those sororities stil around?† Meredith asked. â€Å"Not those specific ones,† Alaric said, â€Å"but it's something to keep in mind. There might be something about the campus that makes people more likely to experiment with the supernatural.† â€Å"And what is that?† Meredith asked, flopping down on her back again. â€Å"What's your theory, Professor?† â€Å"Well, it's not my theory,† Alaric said, â€Å"but I found someone online who suggested that Dalcrest may be somewhere with a huge concentration of crossing ley lines, the same way that Fel ‘s Church is. This whole part of Virginia has a lot of supernatural power, but some parts even more than others.† Meredith frowned. Ley lines, the strong lines of Power running beneath the surface of the earth, shone like beacons to the supernatural world. â€Å"And some people theorize that, where there are ley lines, the barriers between our world and the Dark Dimensions are thinner,† Alaric continued. Wincing, Meredith remembered the creatures she, Bonnie, and Elena had faced in the Dark Dimension. If they were able to cross over, to come to Dalcrest as the kitsune had come to Fel ‘s Church, everyone was in danger. â€Å"We don't have any proof of that, though,† Alaric said reassuringly, hurrying to fil up the silence between them. â€Å"Al we know is that Dalcrest has a history of supernatural activity. We don't even know for sure if that's what we're facing now.† An image of Samantha's blank dead eyes fil ed Meredith's mind. There had been a smear of blood across her cheek below her right eye. The murder scene had been so gruesome, and Samantha had been kil ed so horrifical y. Meredith believed in her heart of hearts that Alaric's theories must be correct: there was no way Samantha had been murdered by a human being.

Chapter 9 Review Questions

Fred Bear MAIR 1449. 02 3-24-11 R. Q. Unit 9 (E. B. ) 1. What is magnetism? When two pieces of iron are attracted to each other by physical means or electrical means. 2. Torque is A. Strength that a motor produces by turning. 3. A magnetic field is D. All the above. 4. True or False: A permanent magnet is a piece of material that has been magnetized and can hold its magnetic strength for a reasonable length of time. True. 5. How is an electromagnet produced? Through electricity. 6. Which of the following produces the best electromagnet? B. soft iron 7.Unlike poles of a magnet repel each other and like poles attract each other. 8. What part does polarity play in the operation of an electric motor? It allows the motor to run continuously. 9. What part of a motor produces an inductive magnetic field within itself to facilitate the rotating motion? Rotor and stator. 10. What part does the frequency of alternating current play in the operation of an electric motor? Helps change polarity 1 20 times a second. 11. What would be the speed of a two-pole motor operating on a 120 volts 60 Hertz power supply? 3450rpm 12. What are the five types of single-phase motors used in the industry? 3. Which of the following correctly lists the motor’s starting torque from lowest to highest? B. Shaded pole, three phase, permanent split capacitor, capacitor start. 14. Which of the following is a common use of a shaded pole motor? A. Furnace fan motor. 15. How does a shaded pole motor operate? The shaded poles produce a magnetic field that is out of phase with the magnetic field of the main winding. 16. How can a shaded pole motor be reversed? The stator must be reversed to change the positions of the shaded poles, and this usually means disassembling the motor. 17.What determines the rotation of a shaded pole motor? B. Location of shaded pole. 18. Draw a diagram of a three speed, shaded pole motor. 19. What enables a split phase motor to develop enough torque to begin rotation? T he method of splitting the phase of incoming power to produce a second phase of power, giving the motor enough displacement to start. 20. What removes the starting winding from the electrical circuit of an open type split phase motor once it reaches 75% of its operating speed? Centrifugal switch. 21. What are the three probable areas of trouble in a split phase motor?The bearings, windings, and the centrifugal switch. 22. What is the unit of measurement for the strength of a capacitor? C. microfarad. 23. What is the purpose of the capacitor? To boost the starting torque or running efficiency of a single phase motor. 24. What is the difference between a running and a starting capacitor? Starting capacitors are usually made of plastic and used to assist a single phase motor in starting. A running capacitor has an oil filled case and is mainly used to increase a motor’s running efficiency. 25. List the five capacitor replacement rules. 1.The voltage of any capacitor used for rep lacement must be equal or greater than that of the one being replaced. 2. The strength of the starting capacitor replacement must be at least equal to but not more than 20% greater than the one being replaced. 3. The strength of the running capacitor replacement may vary by plus or minus 10% of the strength of the one being replaced. 4. If capacitors are installed in parallel, the sum of the capacitors is the total capacitance. 5. The total capacitance of capacitors in series may be found in the following formula: 26. Explain the operation of a permanent split capacitor motor.It has two windings, running and starting. A running capacitor is put in series with the starting winding. The capacitor causes the electron to flow through the starting winding to shift it out of phase with the running winding. Therefore, a rotating magnetic field is set up, causing the rotor to turn. 27. How are a PSC motor and a capacitor start capacitor run motor similar? C. Both use starting relays. 28. Wh at are the advantages and disadvantages of using the following types of motors? A. Shaded pole motor- 29. What are the similarities between an open type split phase motor and a capacitor start motor?C. Both have a centrifugal switch. 30. Which of the following is an advantage in using a three phase motor? B. Stronger. 31. Draw a wiring diagram of a capacitor start capacitor run motor: 32. True or false: All starting apparatuses are mounted externally to the hermetic compressor shell. True. 33. What is the purpose in troubleshooting any electric motor? 34. Which of the following is the capacitance of an 88 uf and a 108 uf starting capacitor connected in series? A. 196uf. 35. Which of the following is the capacitance of two 20 uf running capacitors connected in parallel? B. 20uf. 36.If a capacitor produces 15 A on a 240 volt supply, which of the following is its microfarad rating? A. 166 uf. 37. Which of the following capacitors could be used to replace a 35 uf, 370 volt running capac itor? B. 35uf, 390 volt. 38. Which of the following capacitors could be used to replace a 188 uf, 250 volt starting capacitor? C. 200uf, 250 volts. 39. Which of the following capacitors or combination of capacitors could be used to replace a 45 uf 370 volt running capacitor? A. 40uf, 440 volt. 40. Which of the following capacitors or combination of capacitors could be used to replace an 88uf 250 volt starting capacitor?D. 150uf, 250V. 41. Find the common, start, and run terminals of the following hermetic compressor. 42. Briefly explain the procedure for troubleshooting hermetic compressor motors. Electrically taking resistance readings of the windings with a good ohmmeter. 43. What are the electrical failures categories for hermetic compressor motors? Open, shorted, or grounded. 44. What precautions should be taken when checking hermetic compressor motors? Infinity. 45. What would be the highest allowable resistance reading for a grounded compressor motor? Zero. 46.What are the adv antages of using an electronically commutated motor over a PSC motor? 47. Explain the construction of an ECM. The direct current converters convert the alternating current that the power company supplies to direct current, which can then be regulated to vary the speed of the motor. 48. An ECM is a B. Three-phase DC motor. 49. True or False: The resistance readings of the windings of a properly operating ECM should be equal. False. 50. True or False: The line voltage power supply of an ECM should never be disconnected or connected with the power on. True.